Ancient Time

It was during the melting of ice sheets north of Europe and America that resulted in the emergence of islands, due to the rise of the sea that the Indonesian archipelago emerged. It was also in this period (3000-500 BC) that Indonesia was inhabited by Sub-Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous population of the archipelago. A later mixture was brought about by Indo-Aryan migrants from the South Asian sub-continent of India (1000 BC).

The first Indian immigrants mostly from Gujarat in Southeast India came during the period of the first Christian era.

Indonesian History can be divided into two distinctive histories, namely before Independence and After the Independence of Indonesia starting from 1945. Including within the period of before the Independence, are: the period of Hindu and Buddist Kingdoms, Period of Islamic Kingdoms, the European Influences (the Portuguese, the Beginning of Dutch Colonization, the British Temporary Rule, and the Japanese Occupation).

Whereas the Indonesian history after the Independence includes: national movements after the Dutch coming to Indonesia (1945-1949); the Sukarno Era, the New Order Government; and the Reform Order Government.

The Period of Hindu and Buddhist Kingdoms

Many well-organized kingdoms with high civilization were ruled by indigenous Rajas who embraced the Hindu religion or Buddhist religion at a later stage, and it was for this reason that this period in history was called the Period of Hindu Kingdoms, which lasted from ancient time to the 15^th century AD. Its culture and civilization, emanating from the Hindu and Buddhist religion were later syncretized with Indonesia's cultural elements and therefore also termed as the "Hindu-Indonesian" period.

The first Indian Buddhist arrived in Indonesia between 100 and 200 AD, introducing the Hinayana and the Mahayana sects. The latter became more advanced in the 8^th century AD.

The Period of Islamic Kingdoms

The Hindu Raja of the Kingdom of Demak was the first in Java who converted to Islam. It was this Islam Sultan who later further spread Islam west of Demak in Cirebon up till Banten and then eastwards along the northern coast of Java to the Kingdom of Gresik and ultimately caused the downfall of the mighty Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit (1513-1520). After the subjugation of Majapahit by Islam rulers, Islam spread further east of the island of Java and established the Bone and Goa Sultanates in Sulawesi, and further east to the northern part of the Maluku where the Sultanates of Ternate and Tidore were established. North of Java, Islam spread to Banjarmasin in Borneo and further west on the island of Sumatra and converted Palembang, Minangkabau (West Sumatra), Pasai and Perlak to Islam. Meanwhile, Majapahit aristocratic descendants, religious scholars and Hindu Khsatryas ret through the East Java Peninsula of Blambangan, further eastwards to the island of Bali and Lombok. However, in later periods the eastern part of the island of Lombok was converted to Islam which infiltrated the island from Makassar in South Sulawesi.

European Influences

The Portuguese in Indonesia

The Portuguese, in search of Indonesian spices, entered Indonesia after conquering the Islam Kingdom of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, which was followed by the Spaniards. Both started their first attempt to propagate Christianity in Indonesia. Their position was strongly felt then in Maluku.

The Beginning of Dutch Colonialism

In the meantime, the Dutch started their ventures to seek spices in Indonesia, which they sold in European markets with big profits. To make their trade more efficient and organized, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) with the aim to exploit the Spice Islands in the Indonesian archipelago for European markets (1602). After Dutch VOC was nationalized by the then Dutch Government (1799), the exploitation of Indonesian commodities for Europe developed into Dutch suzerainty over Indonesian territories where the people on such territories were levied by force to make agricultural tributes to the Dutch. In 1605, Dutch colonialism began to have a foothold in Indonesia. The capital of Sunda Kelapa was named "Batavia" by the Dutch.

British Temporary Rule

In 1714, the British came to Indonesia and built their "Fort York" fortress in Bengkulu on the west coast of Sumatra, which was later renamed "Fort Marlborough." The British stayed in Bengkulu till 1825.

During the Napoleonic wars in Europe, when Holland was occupied by France, Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816). Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles became Lieutenant-Governor-General of Java and dependencies subordinated to the Governor General in Bengal in India. Raffles introduced the "land-rent system" replacing the Dutch hated system of "contingent land use" and "compulsory deliveries of crops." The Buddhist monument of Borobudur and other Hindu temples were restored and research carried out. Raffles wrote his famous books entitled "The History of Java" in which he described Java's high civilization and culture.

After the end of French occupation of Holland, the British and Dutch signed a convention in London on August 13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial possessions existing since 1803 should be returned and consequently the Batavian Republic reclaimed the Indonesian archipelago from the British in 1815, after the downfall of Napoleon.

Soon afterwards, the Dutch intensified their colonial rule in Indonesia but was responded by wide-spread Indonesian revolts to regain their independence but were suppressed by the Dutch one after the other. To mention some of those revolts: Thomas Matulessy alias Pattimura staged a revolt against the Dutch in Maluku (1816-1818). Prince Diponegoro of Mataram led the Java war against the Dutch from 1825 till 1830, which was a fierce struggle for independence. Tuanku Imam Bonjol led the "Padri" war against the Dutch in West Sumatra. Teuku Umar led the Aceh war in North Sumatra (1873-1903). Sisingamangaraja, King of the Batak led the war against the Dutch in 1907.

In 1908 the Dutch attempted to occupy Bali but were fiercely repelled by Raja Udayana who led the Bali war against the Dutch. Revolts were also launched in Goa in South Sulawesi and also in South Kalimantan.

National Movements

When all these regional wars of independence were unsuccessful, Indonesian leaders started a more organized struggle against Dutch colonialism known as Indonesia's national movements for independence.

This period was pioneered by the founding of the "Boedi Oetomo" (Noble Conduct) movement on the 20^th of May 1908, which was initially designed as a cultural association for Indonesian intellectuals, turned into politics, stimulated by Japan's victory over Russia in 1901, which accelerated modern national movements throughout Indonesia. The founder of "Boedi Oetomo" was Dr. Wahidin Sudirohusodo, supported by Dr. Soetomo, Gunawan and Suradji.

In 1911, the Society of Moslem Entrepreneurs "Sarekat Dagang Islam" was founded by Haji Samanhudi and others which was aimed at encouraging and sponsoring the interest of Indonesian business within the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this middle class entrepreneurial organization turned into a political party and called them "Sarekat Islam" led by HOS Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agus Salim and others.

In 1911, a Progressive Moslem Organization "Muhammadiyah" was established by Hajji Dahlan in Yogyakarta aimed at social and economy reforms.

In December 1912, an Indonesian Party "Partai Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Douwes Dekker, later named Setyabudhi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro (Suwardi Suryaningrat) striving for complete independence for Indonesia from the Dutch. These three leaders of the party were later exiled by the Dutch colonial government of the Dutch East Indies in 1913. In 1914, Communism was introduced in the Dutch East Indies by Dutch nationals, Sneevliet, Baars, and Brandsteder.

In May 1920, Sarekat Islam was split into a right and left wing faction, the latter of which formed the Indonesian Communist Party "Partai Komunis Indonesia" (PKI) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others.

Further Growth of Indonesian Organizations

In 1922, an organization aimed at promoting Indonesian national education calling themselves "Taman Siswa" was founded on the 3^rd of July of mentioned year by Ki Hadjar Dewantoro.

In 1942, the Indonesian Students Association "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman, and others. This student's association had put more leverage to the Indonesian Nationalist Independence Movements in Indonesia in general.

In 1926 till 1927, Communist revolts, led by the Indonesian Communist Party "PKI" broke against Dutch colonial rule. In November 1926 it rebelled in West Java and in January 1927 in West Sumatra. After Dutch suppression of these communist rebellions many Indonesian non-communist nationalist leaders were exiled to Tanah Merah, which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Papua. Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira.

In February 1927, a federation of all Indonesian parties was called into being by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, called the "Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia" (PPKI). Dr. Mohammad Hatta and Achmad Soebardjo and some other members of the federation attended the First International Congress of League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression in Brussels together with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa.

In July 1927, Ir. Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted the Bahasa Indonesia as the official language. It exerted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the Dutch colonial authorities on the basis of a permanent conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.

In the same year an all Indonesia's Nationalist Movement was set up among the Indonesian youth and women replacing earlier established youth organizations based on regionalism, such as the "Young Java," "Young Sumatra," and Young Ambon," etc.

On the 28^th of October 1928, during the Second Indonesian Young Congress held in Jakarta, a pledge was made by the Indonesian Youth to strive for "One Nation," "One Motherland," and "One Language." This youth pledge is today still commemorated every year. "The Indonesia Raya" song, which later became Indonesia's National Anthem, was for the first time introduced at the Second Indonesian Youth Congress by its composer, Wage Rudolf Supratman.

In 1929, Dutch colonial authorities in the Dutch East Indies concerned about the developing national conscience and the increasing urge for independence by the Indonesian arrested PNI leader, Ir. Soekarno in December of mentioned year which caused great discontent among the Indonesians.

Meanwhile in 1930, the world suffered from an economic and monetary crisis, which had a great impact in the Indies being a raw material producing colony of the Dutch. A balanced budget policy for the colony was strictly carried out detrimental to the economic and educational life of the Indonesians.

In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo aimed at elevating the status of the Indonesian people on the basis of nationalism founded the Indonesian Unity Party, the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia." In April of the same year, the PNI was abandoned and followed by the founding of another party, the Indonesia Party or "Partai Indonesia" by Sartono, LLM, based on nationalism and Indonesia's self-supporting movement. In the same year, Sutan Syahrir founded the Indonesian National Education Group or "Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia," abbreviated as the new PNI, which was joined by Dr. Mohammad Hatta.

In 1937, Dr. AK Gani founded the Indonesian People's Movement, "Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia," which was based on the principles of Indonesian nationalism, social independence and Indonesia's self-supporting efforts.

In 1939, the All Indonesia Political Federation "GAPI" called for the establishment of Indonesia's full-fledged parliament, which was flatly rejected by the Dutch government in Holland in 1940. They also demanded an Indonesian National Military Service in order to defend Indonesia in times of war. This demand was also rejected in spite of the grave international situation, which proceeded the outbreak of the Second World War, the situation of which called for fundamental and progressive reforms in colonies and dependencies in Asia in general.

Japanese Occupation

After the Japanese attacks of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, Japanese Armed Forces went southwards and occupied several Southeast Asian countries. After the British defeated Singapore, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies whereupon the Dutch colonial army surrendered to the Japanese in March 1942. Ir. Soekarno was released from his detention. The Japanese introduced Japan's "Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Idea," which became unpopular in Indonesia as the Indonesians realized that Japanese occupation was just an alternate colonialism substituting Dutch colonialism. For the sake of furthering the course of Indonesia's independence however Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta were giving limited assistance to Japanese occupation authorities on the surface while other Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground to stage insurrection all over Java, such as in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), Sumatra and Kalimantan.

Due to the hardships suffered by the Japanese in waging the Pacific war caused by interruptions of their supply lines and by Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia ultimately gave in to recognize the Indonesian Red and White colored flag as the Indonesian national flag which was followed later by the recognition of the "Indonesia Raya" as Indonesia's National Anthem, and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as Indonesia's National Language.

Proclamation of the Indonesian Independence

The final defeat of Japan after the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki on the 6^th and 9^th of August 1945 prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally to the Allies. This constituted an ample opportunity for Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta to proclaim Indonesia's independence on the 17^th of August 1945. The Republic of Indonesia came into being based on Pancasila under a constitution, with strong Presidential powers, a Parliament, Supreme Advisory Council, State Audit Board and a People's Consultative Assembly as the embodiment of people's sovereignty in free Indonesia, all of which were adopted on the 18^th of August 1945. This 1945 Constitution is still in force up till now. The Red and White flag was officially accepted as the National Flag of Indonesian and the Bahasa Indonesia as the National Language. Ir. Soekarno was elected as the first Indonesian President and Dr. Mohammad Hatta as Vice-President. On the 5^th of September 1945, a Presidential Cabinet was formed with President Soekarno as Premier.

Wars of Independence against the Dutch

Soon after the independence proclamation, British troops as a component of the Allied Forces landed in Indonesia with the task of disarming Japanese Forces in Indonesia.

Fierce fighting broke out in Surabaya on the 10^th of November 1945 between the British troops and Indonesian armed volunteers, which culminated in "Allied Forces" attacks by battle ships, airplanes tanks and armored cars in which Brigadier Mallaby died. The newly Republican Armed Forces fought along with the people armed units. Meanwhile, Dutch troops, under the pretext of representing Allied Forces, grew in number and attacked Indonesian Republican strongholds twice in their military actions between 1945-1949.

During the 1948 Dutch military action against the Republic, the Indonesian Communist Party unilaterally proclaimed the "Indonesian People's Republic" in Madiun (East Java), armed themselves and began to attack republican forces, from the rear. Squeezed by Dutch forces and communist forces, the Indonesian people and the republican army fought their enemies back in two fronts.

Since its inception, Indonesia experienced threats from without and from within. It must be noted some efforts to resolve fights between Indonesia and the Dutch, such as: The Linggarjati Agreement signed on the 25^th of March 1947 and "Renville Agreement" on the 17^th of January 1948.

On the 27^th of December 1949, the former territory of the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist and became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia under a federal constitution based on a parliamentary system providing Cabinet responsibility of Parliament, while the sovereignty over Papua (former West New Guinea) was suspended till further negotiations between Indonesia and Holland. This issue had since become the source of perpetual conflict between the new Republic and Holland, which dragged on for more than 13 years. And since September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United Nations.

The Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia

On the 15^th of August 1950, the original proclaimed Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia was restored however, retaining a liberal democratic system of a cabinet answerable to the House of the People's Representatives, which became the source of frequent changes of cabinet or governments.

The First Government of the Republic of Indonesia

This power vacuum situation following the defeat of Japan in early August 1945 by the US, prompted Soekarno and Hatta to proclaim Indonesia's independence on the 17^th of August 1945, followed by the election of Soekarno and Hatta as Indonesia's first President and Vice-President. On the same day, the Committee for the Preparation of Indonesia's independence dissolved itself.

The first year of the sovereign Republic of Indonesia under the Presidency of President Soekarno was marked by a war of defense against the Dutch who attempted to reinstate the former colony of the Dutch East Indies. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) disagreed with the principles of Pancasila and in 1948 staged an armed and bloody rebellion against the newly proclaimed Republic of Indonesia and unilaterally proclaimed a Communist "People's Republic" in the region of Madiun (East Java).

The first Republican Government under President Soekarno after the recognition of independence was marked by efforts to unite the Indonesian people and to claim the Dutch occupied Province of Papua. The political pattern which governed the new republic was a liberal parliamentary democracy based on a provisional constitution of the Federal Republic of Indonesia as imposed by the Dutch after its abandonment of the 17^th of August 1950. Political strive was rampant due to the multi-political party system Indonesia copied from the then existing system in Holland. This system has not seldom led towards a dichotomy of extreme political and ideological view which found linkages between parliamentary and armed conflicts.

President Soekarno succeeded in carrying out Indonesia's first General Elections in 1955 in which 47 political parties contested to elect their representatives for the House of People's Representatives and for the Constituent Assembly, which was to lay down a new constitution for the Republic. This election was won by the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), the Nahdlatul Ulama Moslem Scholars Party (NU), the Muslim Majelis Sjura Party (Masyumi) and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Their elected representatives in the Constituent Assembly failed to reach a consensus on laying down a new constitution which compelled President Soekarno to dissolve the Constituent Assembly and the House which he was constitutionally entitled to and called for the reinstatement of the 1945 Constitution.

The Beginning of the New Order Government

Over-confident of their strength and precipitated by the serious illness of President Soekarno, who was undergoing treatment by a Chinese medical team from Beijing, the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) attempted another coup on September 30, 1965. The uprising, however, was abrupt and quickly stamped out by the Armed Forces under Major General Soeharto, then Chief of the Army's Strategic Command.

On the night of September 30, or more precisely in the early hours of October 1, 1965, armed PKI men and members of Cakrabirawa, the President's security guard, set out to kidnap torture and kill six top Army Generals. Their bodies were dumped in an abandoned well at Lubang Buaya, on the outskirts of Jakarta. The coup was staged in the wake of troop deployments to Kalimantan, at the height of Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia. Moreover, at the time, many cabinet members were attending a celebration of the Chinese October Revolution in Beijing. It was during this power vacuum that the communists struck again.

Under instructions from General Soeharto, crack troops of the Army's Commando Regiment (RPKAD) freed the central radio station (RRI) and the telecommunication center from communist occupation.

Students made for the streets in militant demonstrations to fight for a three-point claim, or "Tritura," that aimed to ban the PKI, replace Soekarno's cabinet ministers, and reduce the prices of basic necessities. They set up a "street parliament" to gather the demands of the people.

Under these explosive conditions, President Soekarno eventually gave in and granted Soeharto full power to restore order and security in the country. The transfer of power was affected by a presidential order known as "the 11^th of March order" of 1966. Soon afterwards, on March 12, 1966, General Soeharto banned the PKI. This decision was endorsed and sanctioned by virtue of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly Decree Number XXV/MPRS/1966. He also formed a new cabinet, but Soekarno remained as Chief Executive. This brought dualism into the cabinet, particularly when Soekarno did not show support for the cabinet's program to establish political and economic stability. Hence, a special session of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) was convened from March 7-12, 1967. The Assembly resolved to relieve Soekarno of his presidential duties and appointed Soeharto as Acting President, pending the election of a new President by an elected People's Consultative Assembly.

Ever since taking office in 1967, the New Order Government of President Soeharto was determined to return constitutional life by upholding the 1945 Constitution in a strict and consistent manner and by respecting Pancasila as the state philosophy and ideology.

To emerge from the political and economic legacy of Soekarno's Old Order, the new government set out to undertake the following: to complete the restoration of order and security and to establish political stability; to carry out economic rehabilitation; to prepare a plan for national development and execute it with the emphasis on economic development; to end confrontation and normalize diplomatic relations with Malaysia; to rejoin to the United Nations, which Indonesia had quit in January 1965; to consistently pursue an independent and active foreign policy; to resolve the West Irian question; to regain Indonesia's economic credibility overseas;

to hold general elections once every five years.

With regard to Malaysia, not only were relations normalized but Indonesia together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand joined to establish the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. Further, Brunei Darussalam became the sixth member of ASEAN, while Vietnam was accepted as the seventh member of this regional organization followed suit by Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos. The objective of the association is the establishment of regional cooperation in the economic, social and cultural fields, but ASEAN also operates in the political area.

The Reform Order Government

Since the outset of the First Five-Year Development Plan in 1969, Indonesia under the New Order Government of President Soeharto had endeavored to achieve its national development goals. Indonesia, indeed, had been able to achieve substantial progress in various fields which had been enjoyed by the majority of the Indonesian people. Indonesia had gained success in the national development. Unfortunately, severe economic crisis, which began with the monetary crisis, struck Indonesia as of July 1997.

Since the middle of 1997, the people's standard of living dropped considerably. The decline in the people's standard of living was aggravated by various political tensions arising from the 1997 general elections. The political system which had been developed since 1966 turned out to be unable to accommodate the dynamism of the aspirations and interests of the community. This led to riots and disturbances. To a certain extend, they reflected the malfunctioning of the political order and of the government, finally causing this situation to develop into a political crisis.

A number of student demonstrations ensued, including the occupation of the People's Consultative Assembly/House of People's Representatives compound. They appealed for political and economic reform; demanded President Soeharto to step down and stamp out corruption, collusion and nepotism. Critical moments prevailed in the capital, Jakarta, and other towns from 12 to 21 May 1998.

Finally, on May 21, 1998, President Soeharto, after a 32-year rule of the New Order Government resigned. Pursuant to Article 8 of the 1945 Constitution and the People's Consultative Assembly decree No. VII/1973, he handed over the country's leadership to Vice-President Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie. After the announcement, Habibie took his oath of office before Chief Justice Sarwata to become Indonesia's third President. Earlier President Soeharto disbanded the cabinet which he formed shortly after his reelection for a seventh five-year presidential term in March.

A day after his installment as the third president, Habibie formed the Reform Development Cabinet. He picked the ministers from the various political and social forces, including three politicians from the United Development Party (PPP) and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), to provide the needed synergy.

General Elections

The Indonesian nation has been so far organizing general elections for nine times, namely in 1955, 1971, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997, 1999 and the recent 2004.

The 2004 General Elections

Article 1 clause (2) of the amended 1945 Constitution stipulates that "sovereignty is vested with the people and shall be exercised according to the Constitution." It explicitly means that sovereignty shall no more be exercised by the People's Consultative Assembly as it did previously, but shall be done according to the provisions of the Constitution. Under this stipulation all members of the House of Representatives and the Regional Representatives Council _the members of the two legislative bodies then constitute members of the Assembly_ and members of provincial and district as well as municipal Houses of Representatives should be elected, and for the first time in the history of this Republic, the President and Vice-President are to be elected direct by popular votes. Translating the stipulation are Law No. 23 of 2003 concerning General Elections to elect the President and Vice-President, Law No. 31 of 2002 on Political Parties, Law No. 12 of 2003 on General Elections to elect Members of the House, Regional Representatives Council and Regional Houses of Representatives, and Law No. 22 of 2003 concerning the Composition and Status of the Assembly, the House, and the Regional Houses.

Law No. 12 of 2003 stipulates that the number of seats of the House is 550; that of Provincial Houses shall not be less than 35 and no more than 100 seats, and those of district/municipal Houses shall not be less than 20 and no more than 45 seats.

Contesting in the 2004 general elections to elect members of House, and regional Houses were 24 political parties to fight for seats mentioned earlier. Five major parties topping the outcome of the 2004 general elections are: the Golkar Party that garnered 24,480,757 votes to win 127 seats of the House, followed by the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) with 21,026,629 votes to get 109 seats, the Nation's Awakening Party (PKB) with 11,989,564 votes to gain 52 seats, the United Development Party (PPP) with 9,248,764 votes to have 58 seats and the Democratic Party with 8,455,225 votes to seize 57 seats. There were 148 million eligible registered voters, but only 124 million or some 83 percent cast their ballots.

Pursuant to Article 6A of the Constitution, the election of the President and Vice President is in pair by direct popular votes, and the candidates in pair shall be proposed by a political party or a coalition of parties participating in the general elections. With no single pair winning a majority votes in the first-round presidential election on July 5, the two top pairs, Susilo Bambang Yudoyono-Jusuf Kalla and Megawati Soekarnoputri-Hasyim Muzadi were eligible to contest to the election run-off that was held successfully on September 20, 2004 in fair, peaceful and democratic manner.

The General Elections Commission (KPU), an independent institution that organized the legislative and presidential-vice-presidential elections, announced officially on October 4, 2004 that retired Army general Susilo Bambang Yudoyono and his running mate Mohammad Yusuf Kalla as the winner of the election runoff. The Susilo Bambang Yudoyono-Jusuf Kalla pair garnered 69,266,350 votes or 60.68 percent of total valid votes, against 44,990,704 votes or 39.38 percent seized by incumbent Megawati Soekarnoputri and Hasyim Muzadi. There were 155 million registered voters but only 114,257,054 votes or less than 80 percent declared valid. Susilo Bambang Yudoyono is the first president of the Republic since Indonesia proclaimed its independence on August 17, 1945, who was elected by direct popular votes.

Political Party

Law No. 31 of 2002 that governs political parties was enacted on December 27, 2002 to replace Law No. 2 of 1999.

The law stipulates the formation, maintenance, and development of political parties that basically constitute one of the reflections of citizens' rights to assemble, associate, and express opinion. Through those political parties, people can manifest their rights to express their opinion concerning their life direction and their future in the society and state. Political parties constitute the most important component in the democratic political system. Therefore the political structure must rely on the people's sovereign norms which give freedom, equality and togetherness. Political parties as participants of general elections have the opportunities to struggle to win the broad interests of the people, fill up state institutions, and to form government.

A political party must be established by a notary public certificate and registered to the Department of Justice, with the requirements of having regional party boards at least 50 (fifty) percent of the total provinces, some 50 percent of the total districts/municipalities in each province concerned, and 25 percent of the total sub-districts in each district/municipalities concerned. A political party is prohibited to receive contribution either in the form of goods or money from individual and/or enterprise or any part whatsoever without stating clear identities, and over the fixed limit, and receive donation and/or grant contribution from foreign parties in any means that is against the statutory regulations.

In addition, a political party is prohibited to ask or receive contribution from state-owned enterprises, regional-owned enterprises, national-owned enterprises, and other names, cooperatives, foundations, non-government organizations, social organizations, and humanity organizations.

With the taking effect of this law, the settlement of the cases of political parties in penal process adjusts itself to the provisions of this law.

Constitutional Court

Based on the amended 1945 Constitution, the Constitution Court is one of the state organs exercising an independent judiciary power to uphold law and justice according to its duty and authority. The existence of the Constitutional Court is also aim to keep state administration stability, as well as correction to the state affairs experience emerging in the past dual interpretation to the Constitution. Considering that the Constitutional Court is one of the substantial parts to the 1945 Constitution, Law No. 24 on the Constitutional Court was enacted, regulating appointment and discharge of constitutional court judges, duty and authority, law of procedure, composition and status, and other provisions on the Constitutional Court.